Authority of Scripture in the Southern Baptist and Roman Catholic Churches (Sarah Kelchner)

Sarah Kelchner

According to Southern Baptists, the Bible is the ultimate authority on matters of spiritual truth. The Bible is the definitive Word of God: perfect, divinely inspired, and “unconditioned by time or cultural circumstances” (Balmer 11). Southern Baptists believe in the doctrine of biblical literalism because since the Bible is divinely inspired and inerrant, biblical statements must be accepted as unconditionally and literally true; in conjunction with the doctrine of sola scriptura, this means that Scripture therefore holds ultimate authority and should be believers’ only source of spiritual truth (Rogers). Since biblical messages are evident and literally true, the Bible is deemed to be easily accessible and understandable by all (Farnsley 40). Therefore, Southern Baptists uphold the autonomy of each individual in interpreting Scriptures; this idea that each believer has the authority to interpret the Scriptures for himself/herself is known as the “priesthood of the believer” (Farnsley 41). Accordingly, the Southern Baptist Church is characterized by a democratic polity, which is a governance structure which relies upon “the competency of a…believer to interpret the Scriptures rightly under the guidance of the Holy Spirit” rather than on Church authorities to establish acceptable explanations of the Scriptures (Farnsley 42). The Southern Baptist Church acknowledges that remaining committed to the ultimate authority of the Scriptures and to the resultant freedom of individuals to interpret them personally can lead to a degree of subjectivity and even inaccuracies amongst various interpretations. However, the Church roots itself in the conviction that it is even more dangerous to place the authority to interpret Scriptures in the hands of a select few; rather, each “believer-priest” should receive whatever individual message God seeks to convey through the Scriptures and the guidance of both the Holy Spirit and the pastors and ministers available to guide believers to accurate and applicable spiritual truths (Pinson).

Catholics believe that the Bible is absolutely true, but that since it is a compilation of human-made documents, interpretation and guidance from the Church are necessary to accurately determine the meanings of the Scriptures (“Catholics and the Bible”). The Catholic Church points out that while the Bible was divinely inspired and therefore is imbued with some degree of authority from God, the very formation of the scriptural canon was coordinated by the Church when the scriptural canon was established in the late third century (Flinn, “Inerrancy of Scripture;” Matthews 289-290). Therefore, the authority of the Bible depends on the authority of the Church (“Catholics and the Bible”). Since, according to Pope Leo XIII’s statements in the Providentissimus Deus, the sacred writers sought not to provide factual accounts of science or history through the Scriptures, the Bible cannot be assumed to be literally true on all accounts; however, this does not discount the credibility of the Bible in any way on topics of spiritual truths (“Catholics and the Bible”). Rather, this simply means that Church experts use exegesis to disentangle potentially misleading statements from fundamental spiritual truths by examining the cultural and historical context of the Scriptures (“Catholics and the Bible”). In this way, the Catholic Church emphasizes the importance of recognizing both the divine and human aspects of the Bible (Flinn, “Inerrancy of Scripture”). While individuals are encouraged to read the Bible and learn from God’s Word, they must also rely upon the Church’s authority to interpret Scripture and utilize the tools provided by the Church for guidance in reaching complete and accurate conclusions about spiritual truths (“Catholics and the Bible”). Specifically, Catholics are encouraged to follow the missal, which contains readings and responses, during each mass and then listen to the homily, or the priest’s interpretations and explanations of the Scriptures based on Church doctrine (Flinn, “Roman Missal”). There are also commentaries available from theological experts who create detailed explanations for Bible passages to help readers understand the meaning and appreciate the richness of the Scriptures.

Word Count: 599

Works Cited

Balmer, Randall. “Why Southern Baptists Insist on Biblical Literacy.” The Lakeland Ledger 22 Jun. 1991: 11. Print.

“Catholics and the Bible.” Catholic Education Resource Center, Catholic Evidence Guild, 1921, http://www.catholiceducation.org/en/culture/catholic-contributions/catholics-and-the-bible.html. 7 Dec. 2017.

Farnsley, Arthur Emery. “Ambiguity without Consensus: The Development of Procedural Polity.” Southern Baptist Politics: Authority and Power in the Restructuring of an American Denomination, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994, pp. 40–43.

Flinn, Frank K. “Inerrancy of Scripture.” Encyclopedia of Catholicism, Second Edition, Facts On File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/263443?q=catholic scripture. 7 Dec. 2017.

Flinn, Frank K. “Roman Missal.” Encyclopedia of Catholicism, Second Edition, Facts On File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/263187?q=missal. 7 Dec. 2017.

Matthews, Warren. “Christianity.” World Religions. 6th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008. 289-290. Print.

Pinson, William M. “The Authority of the Bible.” Baptist Distinctives, 20 Jan. 2015, http://www.baptistdistinctives.org/resources/articles/the-authority-of-the-bible/. 7 Dec. 2017.

Rogers, Adrian. “The Baptist Faith and Message.” Southern Baptist Convention, 2017, http://www.sbc.net/bfm2000/bfm2000.asp. 7 Dec. 2017.

Scripture in Lutheranism and Catholicism

Katherine Close

Mrs. Weidner

The books of the New Testament comprise what is known as the Christian Canon, the list of books which are universally considered Scripture despite differences amongst the denominations (Matthews 289). However, different denominations have different versions and methods of exegesis (theological investigation of the true meaning of Sacred Scripture) of this common base in Scripture, as evident when comparing Roman Catholicism to a Protestant denomination such as Lutheranism (Maas).

In Catholicism equal emphasis is placed on Tradition and Scripture, which means that the Church does not derive all of its revealed truths from Scripture alone, but also from the interpretations of the Church’s appointed teaching authority (Bransfield). Such exegesis involves the analysis of the literary structure and context of passages in order to extract the true sense of the words as applicable to desired situations (Kodell). The process involves the analysis of the literal, or explicit, sense and the derivative, or implicit, sense (Maas). While the explicit truths are easily found in the Bible, implicit truths exist because of the allowed interpretation and are thus usually unique to Catholicism (Bransfield). This is also extended to the Old Testament, which is read and interpreted in relation to the coming of Jesus in the New Testament despite having been written long before the latter half (Kodell). In the interpretation, Catholics avoid irreverence and respect the infallibility of the Scripture while respecting the Church’s set definition, the Patristic interpretation, and potential analogies of faith (Maas).

Lutheranism places a different emphasis on Scripture. As the first Protestant denomination to develop, Lutheranism was the first to advocate for a doctrine of Sola Scriptura. It places the doctrinal emphasis on Scripture; they believe that the Bible alone should be the basis of Christian faith and the sole authority when determining doctrine (Melton). This authority is facilitated by their belief in God as the true Author of the Scripture (Matthews). Their exegesis states that Scriptural passages have three different meanings: literal, moral, and anagogic (Martin Luther removed the mystical or allegorical interpretation from Lutheran philosophy). Later on, categories of doctrine were added to the process of interpretation (Grant). Lutherans refrain from extreme interpretation of the words to avoid inserting additional meanings into passages so that they may preserve the original significance of the Bible within their doctrine (“Authority”). This traditional philosophy lies in accordance with their concern for continuity with the Church of the past; Lutherans want to stick to the original Lutheran Church’s understanding of scripture as closely as possible (“Authority”).

The official approved english translation of the Bible in Catholicism is the New American Bible (NAB) while most popularly used Bibles in Lutheranism are the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) or the Revised Standard Version (RSV) (Kevin). The NAB does its translation with stringent observance of the rules of criticism and reverence for the words. It also includes eight additional books, collectively known as the Apocrypha, which only Catholics use (Vatican.va). The RSV, and now the NRSV, are the only major translations which include both the Protestant Canon and the Apocryphal books. They are offered in three different versions containing specific books for different denominations (BibleGateway).

Word Count: 520

Works Cited

“Authority of God’s Word.” Lutheran Core, 2017 ed., 15 Apr. 2007, http://www.lutherancore.org/what-we-believe/authority-of-god%E2%80%99s-word/. Accessed 2 Dec. 2017.

Bransfield, J. Brian. “Bible at Core of Catholic Beliefs.” United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, http://www.usccb.org/bible/understanding-the-bible/study-materials/articles/bible-at-core-of-catholic-beliefs.cfm. Accessed 2 Dec. 2017.

Grant, R. M., et al. “History of the Interpretation of the Bible.” The Interpreter’s Bible, by R. H. Grant, edited by Erwin L. Lueker et al., rev. ed., New York, Concordia Publishing House, 2000, pp. 106-41. Christian Cyclopedia, cyclopedia.lcms.org/display.asp?t1=e&word=EXEGESIS. Accessed 2 Dec. 2017.

The Holy Bible. New Revised Standard Version, National Council of the Churches of Christ, 1989. BibleGateway, National Council of the Churches of Christ, http://www.biblegateway.com/versions/New-Revised-Standard-Version-NRSV-Bible/. Accessed 2 Dec. 2017.

The Holy Bible. Edited by United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, New American Bible, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2002. Vatican.va, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__P1.HTM. Accessed 2 Dec. 2017.

Kodell, Jerome. “Basis of Catholic Interpretation of Bible Differs from Protestats.'” Catholic Diocese of Little Rock, 12 Jan. 2002, http://www.dolr.org/article/basis-catholic-interpretation-bible-differs-protestants%E2%80%99. Accessed 2 Dec. 2017.

Maas, Anthony. “Biblical Exegesis.” The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol 5 ed. New Advent, Robert Appleton Company, 1909, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05692b.htm. Accessed 2 Dec. 2017.

Matthews, Louis. “A Statement of Scriptural and Confessional Principles.” The Lutheran Church Missouri Synod, 13 July 1973, http://www.lcms.org/about/beliefs/doctrine/statement-of-scriptural-and-confessional-principles. Accessed 2 Dec. 2017.

Matthews, Warren. “Christianity.” World Religions. 6th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008. 289. Print.

S., Kevin. “Denominations and Bible Translations.” NewEpistles, 25 Oct. 2007, newepistles.wordpress.com/2007/10/25/denominations-and-bible-translations/. Accessed 2 Dec. 2017.

Comparisons of Denominations’ Rituals and Beliefs (Sarah Kelchner)

Date: 12/4/2017
Note: notes taken during the first half of class consisted of continued discussion of the ideas of justification and grace between Lutherans/Southern Baptists and Catholics/ Eastern Orthodox Christians. These notes were consolidated with the previous class’s “Salvation in Lutheranism…” but were also copied below:

Regarding efficacy, Lutherans and Southern Baptists hold that your faith WILL make you change and bring you the grace that is given to us freely by God through Christ’s sacrifice. This grace is completely sufficient for salvation and therefore no specific good deeds are needed. Any religious practice is a SYMBOL of the salvation and grace you’ve already received. No transformation or inner renewal of the person occurs, and no human cooperation is required for salvation.

Regarding efficacy, Catholics and the Eastern Orthodox Church hold that your faith SHOULD make you change your way of living and bring you grace, but and individual still must perform good deeds that are deemed to be the most “efficacious” (effective) ways of bringing about intangible things (God’s grace that leads to salvation) by tangible means (such as receiving the Eucharist or serving the needy). Although grace is a free and undeserved gift from God, some human cooperation is needed in RECEIVING that gift and to merit the grace God gives us by performing good works. The grace given to us is “insufficient:” Christ’s sacrifice is the only way we have a chance at salvation, but once we have faith in Jesus, we do acts that effect the bringing of more grace. We are inwardly renewed/transformed and therefore we constantly act in a way that allows us to receive MORE grace and MORE transformation. Some of these actions include: praying, attending mass, participating in Holy Days, doing the Acts of Mercy, and receiving Sacraments. Nonetheless, grace cannot be merited WITHOUT faith.

———Comparison of Denominations’ Rituals and Beliefs——–
In the Roman Catholic Church:
-Ritual: Eucharist is received during every mass (should be at least once a week, can be once a day or even more than once a day ONLY if the liturgy is different in the two masses)
-Belief/Doctrine: in accordance with the doctrine of insufficient grace, Catholics must receive grace through performing religious rituals. Catholics aim to perform works that are efficacious means of receiving grace in order to receive as much grace as possible

In the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches:
-Ritual: Infant baptism
-Belief/Doctrine: grace must be earned through works, so it is best to start accruing grace and begin that inner transformation at the youngest age possible. The faith aspect of the transaction is supplied by the parents of the child being baptized

In Lutheranism and Southern Baptist Churches:
-Ritual/Action: Emphasis on Bible reading and singing of the Scriptures during church services
-Belief/Doctrine: in accordance with the doctrine of sola scriptura, the Bible is believed to be the only source of spiritual revelation. Since the grace provided to us through Christ’s sacrifice is completely sufficient for us, less emphasis is placed on the rituals and more on learning from the Bible that tells us about this grace and our salvation

-Ritual/Action: No initiation into faith/the Church (by contrast with the Catholic initiation processes of the RCIA (Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults and the Catechumenate)
-Belief/Doctrine: in accordance with the doctrine of “sufficient grace,” no works or specific rituals are needed to help an individual merit salvation. If an individual reports to have accepted Christ and to believe in Him as his/her savior, he/she is automatically considered “saved” and need not go through any certain ceremony to become part of the Church (although it is expected that the new believer begin to partake in the studying of the Scriptures and in learning about basic Church doctrine).

In Southern Baptist Church:
-Ritual: Adult Baptism
-Belief/Doctrine: Baptism is merely a SYMBOL of your faith and of the unmerited grace you’ve already received. It must be performed as an adult when the recipient fully understands the symbolic meaning of the baptism. The baptism itself does not bring grace or additional merit since the individual has already been saved by his/her faith alone.

****Important “big idea” to consider: How do the doctrines and beliefs (regarding grace, transubstantiation/consubstantiation/memorialism, etc) of different Christian denominations influence rituals (Communion, Baptism, etc)?
—————————————————-
Parables:
-Jesus often used simple word-pictures to help his audience understand God’s nature and kingdom
-these word-pictures, called “parables,” used everyday images and stories to communicate extraordinary divine truths by comparing the Kingdom of God to certain items. For example, according to the Gospel of Mark, Jesus compared the Kingdom of God with a mustard seed
-the parables are rooted in the context of the culture in which Jesus lived and therefore require a bit of research and interpretation for us to understand today what Jesus was communicating, but the messages he conveyed are timeless and pervasive
-parables define the unknown using the known
-parables basically ALWAYS deal with the Kingdom of God in some way
-God only reveals the secrets of His kingdom to those who recognize their need for God and spiritual truth
———————————–
Note: Terminology when addressing various denominations:

Roman Catholics refer to meetings as “masses”
Eastern Orthodox Church: celebrations of the “Divine Liturgy”
Generally, all other denominations can use the term “church services”

Roman Catholics refer to officiants of masses as “priests,” but in a parish that has multiple priests, one priest is referred to as the “pastor” and the others are somewhat subordinate to the pastor.
Many Protestant denominations refer to the leaders of church services as “pastors,” while the Southern Baptists may refer to the pastor more specifically as a “minister.”

 

 

Salvation in Lutheranism and the Roman Catholic Church/Eastern Orthodox Church – Kat Close, Nia Hope, and Sarah Kelchner

TWO SIDES OF A COIN

Lutheranism and Southern Baptists

• Independent of all human cooperation
• God’s favor freely given which gives us the merit of Jesus
• Received by faith alone
• Eternal life is just a gift, not brought about by merit or good action
• Jesus’ sacrifice is sufficient grace
• SOLA FIDE: only through our faith are we justified before God. Faith gives you ALL the grace needed.
  • No merit or good deeds necessary
  • Faith will bring about salvation
    • Religious good works are a symbol of this salvation
    • No transformation of the person
• Not a matter of inner renewal or transformation
• If you have faith, you will do the works: good works are still emphasized strongly and it is expected that a true “believer” who has accepted Christ and believes in Him as his Savior will, accordingly, choose to attend church, obey God’s commands, serve the poor, etc.
• ANY religious practice (being baptized, receiving Communion, serving the needy) is a symbol of the salvation and grace you have already received
• God looks upon man and recognizes that they are naturally imperfect, but he chooses to overlook it.

Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodox

• Freely given, but also must be freely accepted (human cooperation is needed)
• Inner renewal brought about by divine grace
  • This does not mean we are perfect after being transformed, but we are more capable of being an expression of God’s love
• This inner renewal does not occur if faith is unaccompanied by the good works and “merit” that must follow–a justified person, by doing good works, merits the reward of eternal life that they have access to through their faith and the freely given grace
• Grace imbued in us through Jesus’ sacrifice is insufficient: a person must show the effects of his provided salvation by transforming their life
  • Unearned grace, a gift of love
  • Justification is an inner renewal wrought by grace but cannot take place without hope, charity, and good works
  • We must continually act in ways that allows us to receive additional grace
  • Efficacy-brings about a certain result; in this context means that we do tangible things (receive Eucharist, serve poor, etc) to bring about intangible (reception of grace from God). Emphasis is placed on using the most efficacious means to bring about a constant deepening of this inner transformation and continue receiving grace
    • Effect a continuing change
  • Faith should bring about salvation BUT works are still needed:
• FAITH AND WORKS (opportunities for grace)
  • Redemption: Jesus’ sacrifice that allows us to receive grace freely from God
  • Salvation: transforming life to fit God’s will
    • Sacraments
    • Mass/Divine Liturgy (when two or more people are gathered together, God is present)
    • Holy Days of Obligation and Sabbath (community comes together for learned events that brought grace)
    • Acts of Mercy such as: visiting the imprisoned, freeing captives (not only in a literal sense but also from the bonds of loneliness, emotional abuse, and depression), burying the dead, and serving the poor and marginalized
    • Prayer (conversation with God; when we say “amen” we are acknowledging the prayer and affirming that we understand what we are doing and the significance of our conversation with God)
  • While it is an unmerited gift, we can justify it in some way – gain merit
    • Show that we understand and display our gratitude
• If you do the works, you show your faith

Communion in Roman Catholic and Southern Baptist Traditions

Sarah Kelchner

Christianity Paper 1: Rituals and Religious Experience–Communion

The Roman Catholic Church refers to the practice of communion as receiving the “Eucharist,” which comes from the Greek word meaning “to give thanks” (Alles and Ellwood, “Eucharist”). This is the ritual in which individuals consume a piece of pressed bread known as the “host” and a small amount of wine that have been consecrated by a priest. In Catholic mass, participating in the Eucharist is the central act of worship, the paramount spiritual experience, and the primary purpose for holding mass (Matthews 313). Although Catholics’ reception of the Eucharist represents their participation in the community of believers, it also is the means by which individuals directly receive God’s grace (Flinn, “Eucharist”). According to the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation established in the 16th century, the elements of the Eucharist are supernaturally transformed into the literal body and blood of Jesus (Flinn, “Eucharist;” Melton, “Transubstantiation”). This transformation occurs when the priest consecrates the elements by reciting Jesus’ words of institution affirming that the bread and wine are His body and blood (Flinn, “Canon of the Mass”). The Catholic Church states that while this consecration occurs by the power of the priest, Jesus is the ultimate power who endows the priest with this authority (Melton, “Transubstantiation”). In this way, the mass is a literal reenactment of Jesus’ sacrifice (Matthews 313).

By contrast, the Southern Baptist denomination refers to this practice as sharing “Communion.” The reception of Communion is not deemed a sacrament, but rather an ordinance that should be performed as a Biblical precept in accordance with Scriptural instructions (Melton, “Sacraments and Ordinances”). While the Catholic Church adopts the doctrine of transubstantiation, Southern Baptists accept the Memorialist doctrine set forth by Ulrich Zwingli, which states that the Lord’s Supper is simply a meal commemorating Jesus’ sacrifice and His Last Supper with His disciples (Melton, “Lord’s Supper”). According to the Memorialist doctrine, Communion involves no supernatural elements or transformations; rather, it is “a symbolic act of obedience whereby members of the church, through partaking of the bread and the fruit of the vine, memorialize the death of the Redeemer and anticipate His second coming” (Melton, “Lord’s Supper”).  In Southern Baptist church services, Communion is not emphasized as the central act of worship; rather, the most significant parts of the service are the acts of singing and preaching Biblical truths (Alles and Ellwood, “Baptists”). For Southern Baptists, Communion is shared by distributing the elements, which usually consist of a piece of bread and a small cup of grape juice, to recipients in their seats (Alles and Ellwood, “Baptists”). Communion is typically shared in Southern Baptist churches once a month rather than during each gathering in the Catholic tradition (Alles and Ellwood, “Baptists”).

The differences in views of Communion between the Catholic and Southern Baptist denominations strongly reflect their larger-scale doctrinal differences. Catholicism’s characterization as more traditional and ritualistic is revealed through the Catholic belief that the Eucharist is a sacrament and represents a literal representation of the physical body and blood of Christ through transubstantiation. Likewise, the Southern Baptists’ divergence from orthodoxy is reflected in their belief that Communion is merely a symbolic commemoration of the Lord’s Supper and a means by which the members of the community affirm their faith. In a similar way, the Catholic belief that the Eucharist is a sacrament represents a more traditional view and contrasts with the Southern Baptists’ doctrinally liberal reference to Communion as an ordinance to be observed based on its Biblical roots rather than a sacrament. While the Eucharist is the primary focus of Catholic mass, the sharing of Communion occurs less frequently and more informally (although it is still very important)  in Southern Baptist churches because in accordance with the Baptist emphasis on the Scriptures, a stronger emphasis is placed on singing and preaching God’s Word during services rather than performing rituals.

Word Count: 595

Works Cited

Alles, Gregory D., and Robert S. Ellwood. “Baptists.” The Encyclopedia of World Religions, Revised Edition, Facts On File, 2006. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/248475?q=Southern baptist communion. Accessed 13 Nov. 2017.

Alles, Gregory D., and Robert S. Ellwood. “Eucharist.” The Encyclopedia of World Religions, Revised Edition, Facts On File, 2006. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/249231?q=Catholic Eucharist. Accessed 13 Nov. 2017.

Flinn, Frank K. “Canon of the Mass.” Encyclopedia of Catholicism, Second Edition, Facts On File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/263543?q=catholic Eucharist words of institution. Accessed 13 Nov. 2017.

Flinn, Frank K. “Eucharist.” Encyclopedia of Catholicism, Second Edition, Facts On File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/263476?q=Catholic Eucharist. Accessed 13 Nov. 2017.

Matthews, Warren. “Christianity.” World Religions. 6th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008. 313-314. Print.

Melton, J. Gordon. “Lord’s Supper.” Encyclopedia of Protestantism, Second Edition, Facts On File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/259125?q=Baptist lord’s supper. Accessed 13 Nov. 2017.

Melton, J. Gordon. “Sacraments and Ordinances.” Encyclopedia of Protestantism, Second Edition, Facts On File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/259094?q=Baptist lord’s supper. Accessed 13 Nov. 2017.

Melton, J. Gordon. “Transubstantiation.” Encyclopedia of Protestantism, Second Edition, Facts On File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/258360?q=Catholic Eucharist. Accessed 13 Nov. 2017.

Baptism for Catholics and Southern Baptists

Katherine-Aria Close

Baptism

Baptism draws its significance from the records of Jesus’ life in scripture, specifically the book of Matthew, “Then Jesus came from Galilee to John at the Jordan to be baptized by him…Jesus said to him in reply, ‘Allow it now, for thus it is fitting for us to fulfill all righteousness'” (Matthew 3: 13-17). This is the first mention of Baptism in the Bible, and Jesus’ thoughts promoting it are what caused the ritual to gain significance. Over time, the ritual became the right of initiation for Christians. To the faithful, it represents the death of an initiate’s old life of sin and the spiritual resurrection into a new life of grace in Christ (Matthews). Although its significance has remained the same throughout time, the formation of denominations such as Catholicism and Southern Baptist generated new perspectives of Baptism.

The Roman Catholic Church adheres closely to the traditional understanding of Baptism. It is the first of the seven sacraments in this denomination and is necessary for a believer to participate in the following sacraments to receive grace. This is because Baptism provides a person with supernatural, spiritual life which the other sacraments build upon in restoration, growth, healing or communication. This new life, or new birth, generates a relationship between the initiate and God formed through grace. This is why Baptism is associated with the words rebirth and regeneration, the re’s indicating the creation of a new, eternal life in Christ. Since Baptism by either water or of desire is necessary, infants who have not received it do not possess the new relationship with God. If unbaptized infants die, Catholics believe it is up to the mercy of God for them to be saved. In the Bible, Jesus addresses this and states to not hinder the little ones from coming to Him. Thus, Catholics practice infant Baptism to follow the words of Jesus (Hardon).

Southern Baptists believe in a different version of Baptism. Baptism is one of two ordinances within this denomination. To them, it is the immersion of a believer in water and is symbolic for the faith in the crucified, buried, and risen Christ. Baptism reflects this belief through the believer’s death to sin, the burial of the believers old life, and the resurrection of the believer’s new life in Jesus. Baptists also believe that baptism symbolizes other beliefs, like Christ’s unity with the church and believer’s obedience to Jesus’ teachings (Brackney). Since it is a symbol, baptism does not itself give salvation and the water used is not sacred, but rather is a method to enhance the symbolism. Baptism is also not regenerative in this tradition due to its symbolic nature (Brackney). Despite being symbolic, baptism still has significance within the denomination. It allows for a believer to publicly display trust in Jesus as the Lord and Savior and their forgiveness of sin (“Baptists’ Two Ordinances”). Thus, candidates must be capable of choosing to be baptized on their own in order to be baptized into this tradition, otherwise this public display would be empty and the significance would be invalid (Brackney).

Word Count: 512

Works Cited

“Baptists’ Two Ordinances: Baptism and the Lord’s Supper.” Baptist Distinctives, edited by Wm M. Pinson, Jr., http://www.baptistdistinctives.org/resources/articles/two-ordinances-baptism-and-the-lords-supper/. Accessed 20 Nov. 2017.

Brackney, William A. Doing Baptism Baptist Style: Believer’s Baptism. Baptist History and Heritage Society, 2001. The Center for Baptist Studies, centerforbaptiststudies.org/pamphlets/style/baptism.htm. Accessed 20 Nov. 2017.

Hardon, John A., S.J. “The Sacraments of Baptism and Confirmation.” Catholic Education Resource Center, 1998, http://www.catholiceducation.org/en/culture/catholic-contributions/the-sacraments-of-baptism-and-confirmation.html. Accessed 20 Nov. 2017.

New American Bible. 2009 ed., Devore & Sons, 1987.

Matthews, Warren. “Christianity.” World Religions. 6th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008. 314. Print.

Christadelphians – Kat Close

Views on the trinity:

Christadelphians believe that God is one individual unit. They reject the divinity of Jesus, and instead believe that he is a manifestation of God. They view the Holy Spirit as a force from God, not divine in itself.

Summary

Christadelphians, or “Brothers of Christ,” are a small, conservative Christian demonization. Their theological beliefs are more similar to those of the original Christian movement under the guidance of Jesus than they are to modern Christian denominations. They split into two groups, Unamended and Amended, due to disagreements on resurrectional responsibility. Some of their uniques beliefs are: there is no hell; there is no original sin; the soul is not immortal; the Kingdom of God will be located on Earth; believers will reign with Jesus after the Second Coming; Satan is the evil within everyone, not an outside being or force (Robinson).

Robinson, B. A. “Christadelphians.” ReligiousTolerance.org, Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, 29 Dec. 2009, http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_delp.htm. Accessed 14 Nov. 2017.

Denominations’ Differing Views on Communion

11/10/17 (Sarah Kelchner)

Roman Catholic:
-name: Eucharyst, coming from the word “eucharis” meaning thanksgiving
-name of service: mass, which can also be referred to as the Eucharyst and is comprised of the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharyst
-doctrine: transubstantiation–the elements are literally transformed into the physical body and blood of Christ through the process of consecration by the power of the priest
-the elements are referred to as two species or “accidents” because it is believed that the elements are the body and blood of Christ and just happen to resemble bread and wine
-typically use pressed bread referred to as the “host,” sometimes individuals receive the bread but not the wine

Eastern Orthodox Church:
-name: Eucharyst
-name of service: Divine Liturgy
-doctrine: a “Mystery” allows for the transformation of elements into the body and blood of Christ by the power of God and the Holy Spirit
-actual pieces of bread or pita bread are dipped into the wine; a communion spoon is used to scoop it out. Both species are ALWAYS taken together

Lutheran:
-name: Communion/The Lord’s Supper
-name of service: church service
-doctrine: consubstantiation–Christ coexists in the elements by the power of (communal) faith without an actual transformation of the elements occurring
-focus: Martin Luther’s ideas, such as the idea of the “iron rod” (even if an iron rod is shaped into something else, it is still iron by nature. In the same way, Christ is present through the elements but the elements are still bread and wine in a literal sense).

Presybterian (Reformed):
-name: Communion/The Lord’s Supper
-name of service: church service
-doctrine: receptionism–Christ is spiritually, but not physically, present in the elements. Those who receive the elements with faith receive the actual physical body of Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit–it’s in the reception of the elements, not in the blessing of the elements.
-focus: John Calvin’s ideas (more to come later)

Southern Baptist:
-name: Communion/The Lord’s Supper
-name of service: church service with the purpose of celebrating the Scriptures, not communion (communion typically occurs about once a month)
-doctrine: memorialist–communion is shared in memory of the Last Supper
-focus: The Lord’s Supper in a Biblical sense

Concept of the Real Presence: doctrine discussing if Jesus is physically or spiritually present in the elements of Communion
-for Catholics: both
-for Presbyterians: spiritually, which can then become physically through the faith of the individual receiving  Communion
-for Baptists: neither

Christianity Intro Notes Parts 1 and 2

Sarah Kelchner–Basic Contextual Notes

Paul, one of the apostles, wrote many letters/epistles to citizens in different towns such as Philippi, Thessalonica, and Colossa. These are the earliest New Testament writings. There are also “catholic” (universal) letters.

The first Christians met in houses because they had no established meeting places and Christianity was a persecuted religion. They often put Christian symbols (such as the “Christian fish” on their door frames to signify a safe place for Christians to gather. Christians were seen as threats to society: for example, the ritual of taking Communion/the Eucharist/the Lord’s Supper made the non-Christians perceive Christians as cannibals since they claimed to be eating the body and blood of Christ.

Early Christians often met for an “agape meal” that signified fellowship and brotherhood between believers.

Intro to the Gospels:
Matthew-Most “Jewish” of the Gospels because he wrote to the Jewish community and sought to portray Jesus as the “New Moses.” Matthew emphasized how Christianity represented an addition to the Mosaic Laws.
Luke: Wrote to Gentiles. Portrayed Jesus as the universal Savior.
Mark: Storytelling Gospel
John: More philosophical, potrays Jesus as the divine son of God–“logos
There are different ways to “know” God, which is seen through the Trinity.

During Jesus’ lifetime, Galilee was ruled by Antipas (Jewish governor appointed by the Romans).

Due to Constantine’s Edict of Milan, Christian writings spread throughout the Roman empire and Christianity became much more widespread. This led to the need for the Council of Nicea, because many different heresies arose from different interpretations of Christian doctrines. Heresies such as Arianism and Nestorianism were knocked down. The Nicene Creed was formed and has two important effects:
1) proclamation of faith
2) both gathers and excludes: brings together believers in fellowship while excluding those who do not believe what the creed states.

The “Pax Romana” is the term for Jewish protest against Roman rule.

Kat Close 6th September, 2017

Christianity is the largest, most widespread religion; thus, it is difficult to state a single belief in which all Christians belief. However, the unifying belief of Christians is in Jesus of Nazareth (sometimes referred to as Yeshua) as the Christ. Jesus is the incarnation of God–“God made flesh.”

Christianity began as a form of Judaism; it uses much of the Jewish beliefs as a foundation upon which it build. Some of the original Jewish beliefs are changed, but nevertheless accepted. During the time of Jesus, the Jews were awaiting their Messiah whose coming was prophesied in the Hebrew Testament.

Due to its roots in Judaism, early Christianity used the Hebrew Bible as its scripture. Over time, the Hebrew Bible became known as the Hebrew Testament, which then became referred to as the Old Testament. The Hebrew Bible composes the Old Testament along with 27 books in the New Testament. The Christian Canon refers to all of accepted/authoritative Christian Scripture, while the Deutero Canon (second Canon) includes extensions such as the Apocrypha, and is only accepted by Catholics.

The New Testament was formed around the 4th century and is composed of four different types of books: the Gospels, the Acts (sometimes referred to as Luke II), the Epistles (letters, such as the Pauline letters), and the Book of Revelation (a symbolic eschatological writing about the end of all time). The four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) are where the majority of information on Jesus is found. Meaning “good news,” they are mostly narratives of Jesus’ life with some discussion about salvation.

Gospel means “good news.” The first three Gospels are known as the Synoptic Gospels (“seen the same”), as they are viewed as similar and share many of the same stories and ideas. They are considered to be faith biographies, as they discussed Jesus’ historical life in a theological way (with reference to their beliefs and religions). They each recount narratives of Jesus, covering around 50 days of his life and focusing on his birth, baptism, ministry, miracles, and passion. Each of the three Synoptic Gospels tell their stories in different ways. The Gospel of Matthew is the most Jewish as it was directed toward a Jewish audience awaiting the Messiah. It’s goal was to show the Jews that they did not have to abandon their religion to become Christian but, rather, they just needed to add Jesus onto their beliefs. In this book, Jesus is depicted as the ‘new Moses.” The Gospel of Mark is known as the storytelling Gospel, and sticks avidly to the narration of Jesus’ life. The Gospel of Luke is directed toward the Gentiles; it wanted to let the Gentiles know that they did not have to be Jewish to convert to Christianity, because Jesus is a universal Savior. Luke, the author of this Gospel, was a Greek physician based in Alexandra, Greece.

The Gospel of John is unique from the others in that it is more philosophical as it is a narrative. This is the first book in which Jesus is discussed as God.

Other books not in the Bible also discuss Jesus’s existence. Herodutus (a Jewish scholar) and Pliny (a Roman scholar) both wrote about Jesus, so we are able to safely assume that he existed.

Jesus’ life began with the Annunciation, when the messenger angle Gabriel told the Virgin Mary that, through the Holy Spirit, she would give birth to Jesus. Her conception despite being a virgin is considered to be Jesus’ first miracle. She was told to name her baby Jesus, which translates to “God saves.”

The most sacred times in Christianity fall around the birth and death of Jesus (as they are such important events): Advent through Christmas and Lent through Easter. Around these two time periods, the holy days of Pentecost and The Epiphany also occur.

*Note: The actual date of Jesus’ birth is unknown; the time of Christmas was chosen to incorporate both a Jewish and Pagan celebration into the religion to make converting easier.*

Adult Life:

Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist when he was around 30 years old. John the Baptist was a prophet who performed the first baptisms to clean believers from sins. (Now, Baptism has become the process of entering into a relationship with Jesus and the Church as well as a method of washing away sins.  Additionally, baptism has become a topic of dissent among different denominations. For example, Catholics and Orthodox Christians believe baptism should happen as a baby, while Baptists and Lutherans insist that baptism should occur when an individual is old enough to make the decision for  him/herself). Jesus was baptized in the Jordan River (a river which carries importance in several other Biblical stories) in what became one of the key events supporting the belief in the Trinity. Jesus (the Son) was being baptized in the river while the Holy Spirit descended in the form of a dove and God, the Father, said in a powerful voice, ‘this is my son with whom I am well pleased.’

Jesus’ ministry involved the inversion of the traditional values of his society. At that time, society valued purity and patriarchy, and so rejected the crippled and the ill and subordinated women. However, Jesus accepted all of the outcasts as his own, touching the lepers and welcoming women as his disciples. His association with the ill and crippled was especially frowned upon, because they were considered to be punished by God. However, when Jesus healed these individuals, he forgave them of their sins.

Jesus got his power from selfless service (contrary to where most powerful individuals of that time received their power from). He is known for his acts of selflessness, such as washing the feet of his disciples, helping the outcasts, and dying for the forgiveness of others’ sins.

Jesus also created a radical new ethical code. He rejected the common method of revenge and retribution and, instead, promoted love and forgiveness. Instead of ‘an eye for an eye,’ he taught to ‘turn the other cheek.’ He taught his followers to suffer blows rather than returning them.

Jesus performed many miracles during his ministry. Most involved either exerting power over nature (examples: calming the storm, walking on water) or helping others. The miracles including the latter are separated from the others because they show his message of love and forgiveness. Jesus used these miracles to heal the sick, raise the dead, and remove demons.

Jesus was viewed as dangerous during his lifetime. Rome was concerned about a revolt or rebellion, and considered Jesus a figure around which people may rally. The Sanhedrin (the Jewish teaching authority) did not want people to disagree and start conflict with the Romans. What scared nonbelievers most was his title as King of the Jews. While followers knew it was about faith, the Romans and Jews took it as a political statement. When he was arrested, Jesus was charged with starting a rebellion amongst other crimes.

Jesus’ Passion did not begin until he entered Jerusalem on a donkey on the day that eventually became known as Palm Sunday. Jerusalem was particularly dangerous for Jesus to go to because it was both a major center for Judaism and Rome. 

Jesus seemed to know what was ahead for him, evident in his talk with God in the garden. During this time of fear, he stats “Abba, if it be your will, let this cup pass before me.” Not only does this remind us of Jesus’ humanity (and the fear he must have experienced knowing his fate), but the use of the word Abba to refer to God also displays Jesus’ connection to God as a son. The word Abba does not translate to ‘father’ as God is commonly known as, but to ‘daddy’ –  a very familiar word which conveys a childlike dependence.

Jesus also knows he will be betrayed by Judus. The Jews paid Judus thirty pieces of silver to lead them to Jesus’ location, an amount of money which eventually became symbolic for betrayal.

Jesus’ final meal on the night before he was arrested is known as the Last Supper, and is believed to have been a Passover/Seder meal as Jesus and his disciples were still devoted Jews at this point. Jesus’ new definition of the Last Supper, which would eventually lead to the Eucharist, aligns itself with Matthew’s comparison of Jesus to Moses in his Gospel. The Last Supper was the first and only known time all 12 Apostles were all together – the number 12 actually comes from those present at this meal.

After Jesus is arrested, he first faces trial from the Jewish authority. As this is a religious body, he can only be charged with and punished for religious crimes; thus, he is charged with blasphemy. Blasphemy is the act of saying something that is offensive to God and a religion. The two statements for which the Sanhedrin accused Jesus of being blasphemous were his title as the “Son of God” and as the “King of Jews.” When asked about the first title, he said that they themselves had given him that name. When asked about the latter, he told them to give unto Caesar his dues,and unto God His to indicate how this was not a political statement.

Nonetheless, he was turned over to the Roman authority based on the charge of treason; the Jewish authorities gave the argument that his blasphemous beliefs were gathering support for a revolt – an event which the Romans feared. After his trial, Jesus was beaten and brought to Golgotha to be crucified. (The date of his crucifixion became commmorated by Good Friday, while his Passion is acted out through the month of Lent).

The crucifixion of Jesus provided one of the most symbolic images of the Christian religion – the cross. Not only is the cross a reminder of his suffering (due to its being an instrument of death), but it is also a symbol of his sacrifice and the ultimate resurrection.

After his death, Jesus’ body was treated and placed in a tomb. This was unusual for the time, as convicts on the cross were usually left to rot as a reminder to other potential criminals. However, as this was during the time of Passover, it was considered sacreligious to leave the body up. Jesus was placed into a tomb but, instead of the tomb being left accessible to Jesus’ family and friends as per the custom of Jewish mourning, a large stone was put in front of his tomb. The Romans put it there because enough people in the city believed in Jesus.

After some time, Mary and Mary of magdalene went to go and treat the body to find Jesus gone. They told the Apostles that they were met with angels during their visit. This day of the Resurrection became known as Easter.

Jesus appeared several times to the Apostles after his Resurrection. Some occasions which Jesus did encounter them are on the road to Emmaus and during the Doubting Thomas scene. 

There is still discussion concerning the religious significance of Jesus. To most Christians, Jesus is a savior and his death ushered in the Kingdom of God on Earth. Many also believe that he will come again, ushering in the Final Judgement. This is where the phrase “the Kingdom of God is here and now and to come” originates. It is commonly accepted that Jesus opened the gates to Heaven for the righteous through his death, as before him the concept of Heaven was nearly nonexistent. People could also not achieve the full union with God without the presence and belief in the Son. This belief is an etiology, an after the fact explanation.

Christianity Terminology

Papacy: The jurisdiction of the Pope, bishop of Rome. The papacy has moral authority of churches around the world. The characteristics and role of the papacy has drastically changed over time. This only exists in Catholicism (“Papacy”).

Parable: A morality tale popularly used in the Bible. Jesus was known for using parables about the Kingdom. Some of the most famous parables are the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37) and the Lost Sheep (Matt. 18:10–14) (“Parable”).

Patriarchate: The office, duristiction, time in office, or residence of an ecclesiastical patriarch. There have been several over time and are often referred to as time periods during the history of the Church (Fortescue). This only exists in the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Pentecost: A celebration of the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus’ Apostles. This is celebrated 50 days after Easter. A gust of wind was said to come through, and the Apostles spoke in tongues. This is seen as the “birth” of the Church (Dennis).

Real presence (Eucharist): Translates to “to give thanks”. It is a primary doctrine of the Catholic Church. The church community comes together to witness the bread and wine consecrate into the body and blood of the Lord (“Eucharist”).

Resurrection: The belief that the bodies of the dead will come back to life. Christians believe Jesus has already resurrected. Christianity teaches the dead will resurrect with the return of Jesus on Judgement Day (“Resurrection”).

Rosary: It is a string of beads used to keep count of prayers. It includes a crucifix, which one uses to bless oneself with and say the Apostle’s Creed. After the Apostle’s Creed one says and Our Father, three Hail Marys, a Glory Be, and 50 Hail Marys, divided by a Glory Be (“Common Prayers).

Sacrament: Originates from the Latin sacramentum, meaning “oath,” “pledge,” or “bond.” Sacraments are acts of worship that are believed to allow individuals to access a special union with the divine and find God’s grace. There are seven main Christian sacraments (although various denominations acknowledge various combinations of these seven, and not all have seven): baptism, confirmation/chrismation, Eucharist/Communion/The Lord’s Supper, reconciliation/penance, matrimony, ordination, and anointing of the sick (Hellwig).

Sacramentals: Sacred signs/sacred objects that are associated with the sacraments and bring about certain spiritual effects: for example, the blessing and distribution of ashes on Ash Wednesday is not a sacrament in itself, but signifies our recognition of and penance for our sins. Sacramentals are extremely valuable because they signify the Church’s intercession between man and God.  Sacramentals include prayers for health and are believed to bring grace and blessings (“Sacramentals”).

Saints: Originates from the Latin sanctus, meaning holy (“Communion of Saints”). Saints are revered individuals who are believed to be special advocates and intercessors for the Church and her members (“Patron Saints”).  Saints are often depicted in images or statues as having a tangible “nimbus,” or halo-like luminous shape around their heads to symbolize their piety (Verostko).

Sola fide: Latin for “faith alone.” This is the Protestant belief that good works cannot justify a person before God, and that only faith in God can bring forgiveness of sins. However, this belief does not mean that good works should not be done, or that the Christian should become complacent in their faith (Maronde).

Sola gratia: Latin for “grace alone.” This is the Protestant belief that only through the undeserved grace of God can a sinner find salvation – not through their own merit. God is gracious because of Himself and Jesus alone, and thus nothing humans do “earns” or “deserves” this grace (Preus).

Sola scriptura: Latin for “scripture alone.” This is the Protestant belief that only the Bible, not tradition or teachings from Church leaders, should be the basis of Christian faith and belief. The Bible is accessible and understandable to the average lay Christian, and thus each Christian should accept its authority above the authority of priests and bishops (Melton).

Soli Deo gloria: Latin for “To God Alone Glory.” This phrase is part of a series of phrases, the five solas of the Protestant Reformation. It explains that although there are many great people and Saints throughout history, glory should go to only one person, and that person is “God Alone.” (Piper)

Solus Christus: Latin for “Christ alone.” This phrase refers to the belief that only Christ alone is needed for salvation of the human race. It emphasizes that He is the one who saves us, and that our efforts alone would never be enough to do so. Therefore, Christ is the most significant figure in Christianity. (Piper)

Theology: Greek for the “talk about/words about God.” The study which explains the nature of God, the relationship of God with the world and humans, and salvation. It is a formal and reasoned discipline which discusses the beliefs of the faithful in a religion concerning God. It is actively developed by qualified church leaders (Alles).

Theotokos: The “begetter of God,” – a title given to Mary. This title was questioned by individuals, but was eventually reaffirmed during the Council of Ephesus which clarified how, since Jesus is both perfectly divine and perfectly human in a unique unity, Mary is accurately speaking, the mother of God. Mary as the Theotokos has become a central icon in Eastern Orthodoxy (Flinn).

Transubstantiation: The Catholic belief that the whole substance of the bread and wine in the Eucharist is transformed into the complete substance of the body and blood of Christ, while the appearance of the food remains the same. It was defined as an article of faith during the fourth Lateran Council and was a major topic of discussion during the Protestant Reformation (Flinn).

Trinity: Latin for “three unity.” This is the Christian belief that the three persons – the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit – are one God. It is a central teaching of the Christian Church that was explained during the Council of Nicea. Each is. Distinct person with one dshared divine essence and each is eterna (Flinn).

Vestments: Official clothing worn by priests during mass. Priests wear different colored vestments depending on the liturgical season. A common vestment is cassock worn by priests for day-to-day attire (Alles).

Works Cited

Alles, Gregory D., and Robert S. Ellwood. “Resurrection.” The Encyclopedia of World Religions, Revised Edition, Facts On File, 2006. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/249683?q=Resurrection. Accessed 30 Oct. 2017.

Alles, Gregory D., and Robert S. Ellwood. “Theology.” The Enclopedia of World Religions, Rev. ed., Facts on File, 2006. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/249064?q=Theology. Accessed 29 Oct. 2017.

Alles, Gregory D., and Robert S. Ellwood. “Religious Vestments.” The Encyclopedia of World Religions, Revised Edition, Facts On File, 2006. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/248655?q=vestments. Accessed 30 Oct. 2017.

“Communion of Saints.” New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., vol. 4, Gale, 2003, pp. 34-36. Gale Virtual Reference Library, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GVRL&sw=w&u=whea89578&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CCX3407702631&asid=0beddb953ba23eb4535944776e868ada. Accessed 24 Oct. 2017.

Dennis, Matthew. “Pentecost.” Encyclopedia of Holidays and Celebrations, Facts On File, 2006. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/419717?q=pentecost. Accessed 30 Oct. 2017.

Flinn, Frank K. “Common Prayers.” Encyclopedia of Catholicism, Second Edition, Facts On File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/263538?q=Rosary christianity. Accessed 30 Oct. 2017.

Flinn, Frank K. “Council of Ephesus.” Encyclopedia of Catholicism, 2nd ed., Facts on File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.come/HRC/Search/Details/235701?q=Theotokos.

Flinn, Frank K. “Eucharist.” Encyclopedia of Catholicism, Second Edition, Facts On File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/263476?q=Real presence eucharist. Accessed 30 Oct. 2017.

Flinn, Frank K. “Papacy.” Encyclopedia of Catholicism, Second Edition, Facts On File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/235565?q=papacy OR medieval church. Accessed 30 Oct. 2017.

Flinn, Frank K. “Parable.” Encyclopedia of Catholicism, Second Edition, Facts On File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/235567?q=parable. Accessed 30 Oct. 2017.

Fortescue, Adrian. “Patriarch and Patriarchate.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 2 Nov. 2017 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11549a.htm&gt;.

“Trinity in Catholicism.” Encyclopedia of Catholicism, Second Edition, Facts On File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/235600?q=Trinity. Accessed 2 Nov. 2017.

Hellwig, Monika K. “Sacrament: Christian Sacraments.” Encyclopedia of Religion, edited by Lindsay Jones, 2nd ed., vol. 12, Macmillan Reference USA, 2005, pp. 7958-7964. Gale Virtual Reference Library, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GVRL&sw=w&u=whea89578&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CCX3424502691&asid=22ff966530d7989786c30dd68653cf0e. Accessed 24 Oct. 2017.

Maronde, Christopher. “Sola Fide.” Lutheran Reformation, The Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod, 16 June 2016, lutheranreformation.org/theology/sola-fide/.

Melton, J. Gordon. “Sola Scriptura.” Encyclopedia of Protestantism, Second Edition, Facts On File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/259154?q=sola scriptura. Accessed 25 Oct. 2017.

“Patron Saints.” New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., vol. 10, Gale, 2003, pp. 969-976. Gale Virtual Reference Library, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GVRL&sw=w&u=whea89578&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CCX3407708534&asid=4089baf51a93e1f0207cf6efdf998bbc. Accessed 24 Oct. 2017.

Piper, John. “Are the Five Solas in the Bible? Part 3: In Christ Alone.” Desiring God, 3 Oct. 2017, http://www.desiringgod.org/labs/in-christ-alone.                 Accessed 30 Oct. 2017.

Piper, John. “Soli Deo Gloria: Heart and Soul of the Reformation.” Desiring God, 30 Aug. 2017, http://www.desiringgod.org/messages/soli-deo-gloria.        Accessed 30 Oct. 2017.

Preus, Stephen. “Sola Gratia.” Lutheran Reformation, The Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod, 13 June 2016, lutheranreformation.org/theology/sola-gratia/.

“Sacramentals.” New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., vol. 12, Gale, 2003, pp. 479-481. Gale Virtual Reference Library, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GVRL&sw=w&u=whea89578&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CCX3407709789&asid=a26b703d15b7a2ba99eb67a190b95299. Accessed 24 Oct. 2017.

—. “Transubstantiation.” Encyclopedia of Catholicism, 2nd ed., Facts on File, 2016. World Religions, online.infobase.coom/HRC/Search/Details/263446?q=Transubstantiation. Accessed 29 Oct. 2017.

VEROSTKO, R. J., and J. U. MORRIS. “Saints, Iconography of.” New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., vol. 12, Gale, 2003, pp. 598-602. Gale Virtual Reference Library, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GVRL&sw=w&u=whea89578&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CCX3407709942&asid=80919c135f5a545dbc58a1d5516a036d. Accessed 24 Oct. 2017.